COURSE · PART 1 · MODULE 2
Module 2 — How Is FND Diagnosed?
This short module introduces **How Is FND Diagnosed?** and helps readers choose the most useful page.
In this module
- FND should be diagnosed through positive evidence and appropriate clinical reasoning—not merely because testing was unrevealing. Tests answer defined questions, and another condition may coexist with FND. [1][2][3]
Pages
- Positive Signs and the Neurological Examination — focused guidance on positive signs and the neurological examination.
- Tests, Diagnostic Uncertainty, and Coexisting Conditions — focused guidance on tests, diagnostic uncertainty, and coexisting conditions.
Inside each page: Person with FND · Supporters · Clinicians · Research
Every page in this module uses these same four main sections.
Research and Sources
| Citation | Figure | Full citation |
|---|---|---|
| [1] | — | Bennett K, Diamond C, Hoeritzauer I, Gardiner P, McWhirter L, Carson A, Stone J. A practical review of functional neurological disorder (FND) for the general physician. Clinical Medicine. 2021;21(1):28–36. FND-CIT-0001. https://doi.org/10.7861/clinmed.2020-0987 |
| [2] | — | Espay AJ, Aybek S, Carson A, et al. Current concepts in diagnosis and treatment of functional neurological disorders. JAMA Neurology. 2018;75(9):1132–1141. FND-CIT-0002. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.1264 |
| [3] | — | Tolchin B, Goldstein LH, Reuber M, Stone J, Perez DL, LaFrance WC Jr, et al. Management of Functional Seizures Practice Guideline Executive Summary: Report of the AAN Guidelines Subcommittee. Neurology. 2026;106(1):e214466. FND-CIT-0010. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000214466 |