Interoception, Proprioception, and Outside Senses

The Person section was human-authored and approved October 30, 2026; the Clinician section was human-edited and approved November 2, 2026; the Supporter section was human-edited and approved November 3, 2026. Audit 1 corrections were accepted and applied November 4, 2026.

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For the Person With FND
For Family, Friends, and Other Supporters
For Clinicians and the Care Team
Research and Sources

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For the Person With FND

Three kinds of information

You’re in the kitchen making breakfast.

Your stomach growls. You hadn’t realized how hungry you were.

You reach toward the cupboard while looking at the toaster. Somehow, your hand finds the handle without your having to watch every movement of your arm.

Then the kettle clicks off behind you.

Three ordinary things just happened.

You noticed something inside your body, knew where part of your body was, and heard something in the world around you.

Your nervous system receives these different kinds of information all the time.

Scientists have names for them. Understanding what each one does can help us make more sense of some unusual experiences with FND.

Information from the world around you

Let’s begin with the kettle.

You didn’t need to see it to know it had switched off. Your ears picked up the sound.

Your eyes tell you where the cupboard is. Your fingers feel the shape of its handle.

These are examples of information coming from outside your body.

Exteroception: Sensing information from the world around you, including sights, sounds, smells, tastes and things touching your skin.

That’s a rather long word for something you use constantly!

Exteroception helps you recognize what’s happening around you.

It tells you that a car is approaching, that your phone is ringing or that the water from the tap feels cold against your fingers.

But getting information from the outside world is only part of the story.

How do you know where your arm is?

Return to the cupboard.

You reached toward the handle without staring at your arm. Even while watching the toaster, you had some idea of where your hand and elbow were.

How?

Your nervous system receives information from muscles, tendons and joints that helps it understand the position and movement of your body.

Proprioception: Your body’s sense of where its parts are and how they’re moving, even when you aren’t looking at them.

Imagine pulling on a jacket.

You can guide your second arm into its sleeve without watching your elbow every moment.

Or think about sitting in a chair and shifting your feet underneath you.

You usually have some sense of where your legs are, even when they’re out of sight.

That information is especially useful for movement.

Your eyes can tell you where an object is. Your body-position sense helps you know where your hand is in relation to it.

Together, they help you reach for the object. [2]

What about information from inside your body?

Now let’s return to your growling stomach.

You noticed hunger.

Perhaps you also noticed that you were thirsty, warm or unusually tired.

Your nervous system receives information about what’s happening inside your body, too.

Interoception: Sensing and interpreting conditions inside your body, such as hunger, thirst, heartbeat, breathing and bladder fullness. Much of this happens without conscious awareness.

Interoception is fascinating because you don’t have to think about every internal change.

Your body responds to things such as temperature and physical activity throughout the day.

Sometimes you become aware of what’s happening.

Your stomach growls. You feel thirsty. You notice your heart beating after climbing the stairs.

Other times, your body makes adjustments without you noticing.

And sometimes you may only recognize a need after it has become quite strong.

Perhaps you’ve been concentrating on an interesting project and suddenly realize you should have eaten an hour ago.

Your body has been sending information, but you weren’t necessarily paying attention to it.

Receiving information and consciously noticing it aren’t quite the same thing. [1]

Your brain combines these messages

We’ve learned three names. What do we call them together?

Sensory systems: The different ways your nervous system gathers information from the world, your body’s position and movement, and conditions inside your body.

You can call what they provide sensory information. When your brain organizes and makes sense of it, that’s called sensory processing.

Let’s put our three kinds of information together.

Imagine you’re carrying a basket of laundry through your home.

Your eyes tell you where the doorway is.

Your body-position sense helps you know where your arms are, even though the basket blocks part of your view.

You notice that you’re becoming warm and tired from carrying it.

Your brain brings this information together while you move.

It also uses what it learned from previous experiences.

Remember Lesson 18? We learned that your brain makes predictions about what’s likely to happen and adjusts them as new information arrives.

Now we’ve met some of the information those predictions work with.

And here’s something important:

These three sensing systems aren’t separate little rooms in your brain. They work together.

Other information matters too. For example, your inner ears help with balance and sensing head movement.

You don’t have to consciously organize all of this. Your nervous system does an extraordinary amount of work for you.

When what you see and what you feel don’t agree

Imagine reaching down to adjust your shoe.

You can see your foot.

But something feels strange.

Your foot seems farther away than it should, or your leg doesn’t feel quite as clearly connected to the rest of your body.

You look again.

Your foot is exactly where you expected to see it.

Yet the unusual feeling remains.

That can be confusing. Your eyes are giving you one kind of information, while your experience of your body seems to be telling you something different.

Some people with FND report unusual experiences of body position, sensation or movement.

It doesn’t mean that the foot has physically moved or that the person is imagining the sensation.

But it also doesn’t tell us exactly why the sensation feels different.

Knowing the difference between seeing where your foot is and feeling where your foot is gives us better words for describing the experience.

A sensation, a measurement and an explanation

Here’s another situation.

You’re sitting quietly when you suddenly notice your heart beating strongly.

It feels fast.

What do you know?

You know what you’re experiencing: a strong or rapid-feeling heartbeat.

But do you know how fast your heart is actually beating?

Not necessarily.

A measurement of your pulse or heart rhythm might help answer that question.

And even if you know the measured rate, you still may not know why it’s happening.

Perhaps you’ve just been physically active. Perhaps you’re dehydrated or taking a medication that affects your heart rate. Sometimes a heart rhythm problem or another medical condition needs assessment.

These are three different questions:

1. What am I feeling? My heartbeat feels unusually strong or fast.
2. What can be measured? How fast is my heart beating, and what is its rhythm?
3. Why is it happening? What explains the sensation or measurement?

The same idea applies to many sensations.

A person might describe dizziness, numbness, tingling or feeling disconnected from part of their body.

A person living with FND and other health conditions described their experience this way:

“I get tingling, needles, numbness, and burning sensations.”

Figure 1. Community experience — describing sensations while living with more than one condition. [8]

Those words tell us quite a lot about what the person feels.

They don’t tell us why.

And that’s perfectly fine. Describing an experience accurately is useful even when its cause isn’t understood yet.

What might body sensing have to do with FND?

Now we’re ready to connect these ideas to FND.

Some people with FND experience changes in sensation, body awareness or the feeling of where a body part is.

Others experience dizziness, unusual internal sensations or difficulties coordinating movement.

Scientists are investigating whether differences in how the brain receives and combines bodily information might contribute to certain functional symptoms.

Remember the foot that looked to be in the right place but felt strangely distant?

One question scientists might explore is how information about body position works together with what the eyes see.

Another question is whether people with FND notice and interpret certain internal body signals differently.

There’s already some interesting research.

In one study, scientists examined how people with FND experienced their heartbeats and how their brains responded to them.

They used several different ways to study body awareness.

Interestingly, the different measurements didn’t all tell the same story.

Some showed differences between the FND group and people without FND. Another task didn’t find a clear difference between the groups. [3]

That teaches us something important.

Being aware of a sensation, judging it accurately and measuring the brain’s response to it are different things.

Scientists are still learning how these abilities relate to FND.

But you can see why studying them separately matters. If we assume they’re all the same thing, we might miss something important about how the nervous system works.

Can these senses be tested?

Yes. A clinician may gently touch different areas of your skin and ask what you feel.

They might carefully move your finger or toe while your eyes are closed and ask which direction it moved. That helps check your body-position sense.

If you feel faint when standing, they might measure your pulse and blood pressure lying down and standing up.

These tests tell clinicians different things. They may help identify which abilities have changed or whether another medical condition needs attention.

No single sensory test diagnoses FND. Clinicians consider the findings alongside your history, the rest of your examination and any tests you need.

What does this look like in everyday life?

Think about three people who all say, “Something feels wrong.”

The first person says their leg feels distant, even though they can see exactly where it is.

They might have difficulty describing their body’s position or how the leg feels.

The second person becomes uncomfortable under bright lighting and finds it increasingly difficult to concentrate.

Their surroundings are providing information that has become difficult to manage. Migraine or other conditions may contribute.

The third person feels dizzy when standing.

Are they experiencing a spinning sensation, feeling faint or having trouble with balance?

Those differences matter because each description may lead to different questions and medical assessments.

These three people may all have FND, but their experiences aren’t necessarily caused by the same thing.

Understanding what kind of information is involved helps us ask better questions. It doesn’t establish the cause of the symptom.

Can this knowledge help with recovery?

Sometimes understanding the sensory systems helps a therapist choose useful support or rehabilitation.

If your hand’s position feels uncertain, an occupational therapist might help you use sight and touch together while folding a towel or handling another familiar object.

If placing your foot is difficult, a physiotherapist might use a clear visual target while helping you practise a safe movement.

If ordinary contact is painful or overwhelming, a therapist might explore a gradual, tolerable return to selected textures or activities.

Different problems need different approaches, and not every technique suits every person. [7]

Information from one sensory system can sometimes help you manage an activity when another kind of information feels unreliable.

This doesn’t prove which system caused the symptom. It means we can look for a safer, more workable way to do something important.

You can explore the Functional Sensory Symptoms diagnostic reference and the detailed sensory recovery techniques when you’re ready for more.

What can we do with this understanding?

You don’t need to monitor every sensation or conduct experiments on your body.

Instead, you can begin using more precise words when something feels unusual.

Compare these two descriptions:

“My leg feels weird.”

And:

“I can see where my foot is, but it doesn’t feel like it’s in the right place.”

The second gives someone more information about your experience.

Or compare:

“I feel dizzy.”

With:

“When I stand up, I feel as though I’m going to faint.”

That description helps a clinician know which questions to ask next.

You haven’t had to figure out the cause yourself.

You’ve simply described what you experience.

What have we learned?

Your nervous system receives information from the world around you, from your body’s position and movement, and from inside your body.

These sensory systems work together. Your brain also uses attention, memory and predictions to help understand what’s happening.

Scientists are investigating whether differences in these abilities contribute to some FND symptoms.

Understanding the kinds of information your brain receives gives us better words for our experiences and better questions to bring to our care team.

Something to think about

Picture walking on uneven ground, sitting in a bright room, or noticing an uncomfortable feeling inside your body. Which information seems most important in that moment: where your body is, what is happening around you, or what you’re feeling inside? You don’t need to work out the cause to describe the experience.

How might that feel?

If someone couldn’t see or feel what was making that situation difficult, what would you want them to understand? Would having better words for it make asking for help a little easier?

One small step

Think of a place you’d like to enjoy more comfortably. Softer light for reading, a quieter place to talk, or a safer route across uneven ground might help. The useful change may be something you’ve already arranged; what matters is whether it helps you take part.

In our next lesson, we’ll explore why some information becomes particularly important to the brain—and why certain sensations, sounds or demands can become so difficult to ignore.

Optional crossword

Revisit the lesson with a crossword. The easy edition includes a word bank.

Optional colouring activity

Open the Lesson 19 colouring PDF (new tab), or browse the colouring collection.

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For the Person With FND
For Family, Friends, and Other Supporters
For Clinicians and the Care Team
Research and Sources

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For Family, Friends, and Other Supporters

When what you see isn’t what they feel

Imagine your partner getting ready to leave the house.

They’re putting on a jacket, but they’re having difficulty with the zipper.

You notice them looking closely at their fingers, adjusting their grip and trying again.

“What’s wrong?” you ask.

“My hand feels strange. I can see where it is, but it doesn’t quite feel like it’s there.”

You look at their hand.

It’s right there, holding the zipper.

You can understand why they’re having trouble with it, but you can’t understand the strange feeling they’re describing.

And perhaps your partner can’t explain it much better than that.

It’s an interesting difference, isn’t it?

You can see where their hand is. They can see it too. But what they’re experiencing doesn’t quite match what either of you can see.

How can that happen?

We experience our bodies in different ways

Think about reaching into your pocket for your keys.

You usually know roughly where your hand is without having to look at it. You can feel the keys against your fingers and recognize their shape.

Your nervous system is bringing together several kinds of information.

Scientists have names for them.

Exteroception is information from the world around us, including what we see, hear and feel against our skin.

Proprioception helps us sense where our body parts are and how they’re moving.

Interoception concerns conditions inside our bodies, such as hunger, heartbeat and breathing.

These different sources of information work together so naturally that we rarely think about them.

But imagine how difficult ordinary activities might become if your sense of where your hand was didn’t quite match what your eyes were showing you.

Or if you felt unexpectedly hot, dizzy or uncomfortable without being able to understand the sensation.

Some people with FND describe experiences like these. Researchers are investigating differences in how sensory information is represented and interpreted in FND, including how people experience signals coming from inside their bodies. [1][2][3]

The research is still developing, and different symptoms may have different explanations.

But it gives us a useful way to understand something that can otherwise be quite confusing.

The way someone’s body appears to us doesn’t necessarily tell us how that body feels to them.

When someone describes a feeling you can’t check

Let’s imagine another situation.

You’re sitting with someone who has FND when they suddenly say:

“My heart feels like it’s racing.”

They look comfortable enough. They’re sitting quietly, and nothing obvious has changed.

You might wonder whether they’re mistaken.

But they’re describing what they feel, not necessarily what a heart-rate monitor would measure.

Those are different things.

The sensation itself is worth understanding. Whether their heart is beating unusually fast, and why they’re experiencing it, are questions that may need medical assessment.

This is particularly important because someone with FND can also have a heart condition, migraine, an autonomic disorder or another illness affecting their bodily sensations.

For a supporter, recognizing the difference can be helpful. You can listen to what the person is experiencing without needing to explain it or decide what’s causing it.

Sometimes being understood is the first thing the person needs.

What might help with the jacket?

Let’s return to your partner standing by the door.

They’re still working on the zipper.

You could reach over and fasten it for them. That might be helpful, especially if they’re tired or struggling.

But perhaps they want to finish it themselves.

You might simply ask:

“Would you like me to hold the bottom of the jacket steady?”

Maybe they say yes.

Now they can concentrate on guiding the zipper while you hold the fabric in place.

Or perhaps they’d prefer better lighting so they can see their fingers more clearly.

Someone else might find the entire task easier while sitting down.

There’s no single answer because the difficulty may be different for each person.

What matters is that your help follows from understanding what they’re experiencing, rather than assuming that the difficulty must be the same as it looks from the outside.

And sometimes the person won’t know what would help. That’s understandable too.

Making room for experiences we can’t share

Living alongside someone with FND can involve hearing descriptions that are difficult to imagine.

“My leg doesn’t feel like it’s where it should be.”

“The light is making everything harder.”

“I can see my hand moving, but it feels strangely distant.”

You may never experience those sensations yourself.

You may also notice things the person doesn’t notice, and those observations can sometimes be useful when they describe their symptoms to a clinician.

The two perspectives don’t have to compete.

Your observations tell part of the story. Their experiences tell another.

As you begin understanding the different sensory systems, unfamiliar descriptions can become a little less mysterious.

And that understanding can change ordinary moments together.

Instead of wondering why someone needs to look at their hand to manage a zipper, you might understand why seeing what they’re doing has become especially important.

Instead of assuming an uncomfortable sensation must be obvious to everyone, you may recognize that some experiences simply aren’t visible.

We don’t have to experience the same sensations to understand why an ordinary activity might have become difficult for someone we care about.

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For the Person With FND
For Family, Friends, and Other Supporters
For Clinicians and the Care Team
Research and Sources

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For Clinicians and the Care Team

Understanding the information behind the experience

In Lesson 18, we examined how the nervous system combines expectations with incoming information. We now look more closely at that information and how differences in sensing, interpretation and measurement influence clinical understanding and rehabilitation.

Three interacting sensory systems are particularly relevant:

• Exteroception: Information from the external environment, including vision, hearing and sensations arising from contact with the skin.
• Proprioception: Information about body position, movement and force, primarily involving muscles, tendons and joints.
• Interoception: Sensing and representing internal bodily conditions, including cardiovascular, respiratory and visceral signals, much of which occurs outside awareness.

These systems work together. For example, when someone buttons a shirt, their eyes help locate the button, cutaneous sensation provides information about the fabric, and proprioception contributes information about finger position and movement. The distinction becomes clinically important when a patient reports that an ordinary action no longer feels as it should. [1][2]

Clinical case: When a hand doesn’t feel where it should

Maya is a fictional patient with an established FND diagnosis based on appropriate positive neurological findings.

She describes an unusual experience while folding laundry.

“I can see my hand holding the towel, but it feels farther away than it really is. Sometimes I can’t tell where the edge of the fabric is until I look.”

Maya can usually complete the activity, although it now requires considerably more effort. She finds herself repeatedly looking at her hand, repositioning the towel and checking her grip.

Which sensory system is involved?

Her account raises several possibilities. Difficulty detecting the fabric’s edge could involve cutaneous sensation. Uncertainty about where her fingers are positioned might suggest altered proprioceptive experience, while feeling that the hand is distant could concern body representation or ownership.

There might also be a motor coordination difficulty, while the increased attention required could affect task performance. These experiences can overlap, but they are not interchangeable. The useful starting point is to clarify which abilities have changed, which remain available and how those findings relate to Maya’s everyday difficulty.

What can clinical assessment tell us?

A sensory complaint can describe several different experiences, and clinical findings help distinguish them.

For example, suppose Maya consistently recognizes the position of her fingers during examination but continues to describe her hand as distant. Her subjective experience of limb position has changed, while the particular proprioceptive ability tested remains demonstrable under those conditions. One finding does not invalidate the other.

Similarly, Maya’s difficulty locating the towel’s edge might involve cutaneous sensation, but it could also reflect difficulty integrating sensation and movement during the activity. A sensory examination can help characterize which functions are affected. Its findings must be interpreted alongside the patient’s history, clinical presentation and relevant neurological evidence. An unusual sensory distribution or an apparent inconsistency is not, by itself, sufficient to diagnose FND. [5]

The detailed methods and diagnostic limitations belong in the sensory mapping reference.

Maya’s difficulty with the towel adds another kind of information. She can see her hand, understands the task and wants to complete it, yet handling the fabric requires more effort than expected. Her performance during this familiar activity helps connect the examination findings to the difficulty she experiences in daily life.

The clinically useful distinction is between what Maya feels, what an examination demonstrates and how those abilities contribute to the activity she wants to perform.

From assessment to rehabilitation

Suppose Maya’s assessment supports an appropriate functional rehabilitation approach, with other relevant medical explanations considered. Her goal is straightforward: she wants to fold laundry comfortably again.

One possibility involves using the activity itself to bring sensation and movement together. An occupational therapist working with Maya might explore how she identifies a towel’s edge, feels its surface and follows its folds while handling it. Sight can remain available when helpful; a useful activity does not become more therapeutic simply because the person is deprived of information that supports it.

Why might this approach help? It brings tactile information, movement and a familiar functional goal together. The distinction from an isolated sensory test is important: recognizing a sensation during examination and using that information while manipulating an object are related, but different abilities. Meaningful activity provides an opportunity to explore how available sensory information contributes to functional hand use.

Sensory discrimination and movement-associated feedback are described among approaches to functional sensory rehabilitation, although evidence for specific techniques remains limited. [7] The rationale is therefore clinical and individualized: the activity may provide a tolerable opportunity to explore sensation and improve functional hand use. It does not establish which neural mechanism produced Maya’s symptoms.

Did the rehabilitation approach help?

Suppose Maya begins folding the towel with fewer interruptions. The clinician can examine whether she locates the fabric more consistently, completes the task with less assistance, and experiences less effort or discomfort. Equally important is what happens outside the appointment: Can Maya fold laundry at home using the approach? Does it help with another familiar activity, such as putting on a jacket?

Those observations help distinguish improvement during a supported activity from improvement that carries into everyday life. They also help reveal whether the approach is suitable for Maya. A particular texture might improve her ability to locate the fabric but cause discomfort or sensory overload. In that situation, the benefit must be considered alongside the additional difficulty.

Likewise, continued difficulty with the task might suggest that the intervention has not adequately addressed the problem. Sensory experience, motor coordination and task demands may each contribute to the result. The treatment goal is improved hand use and participation, with comfort and safety preserved.

A successful functional activity is a meaningful rehabilitation outcome even when the underlying sensory-processing mechanism remains uncertain.

What can interoception research teach us?

Maya’s experience primarily concerns external sensation, body position and possibly body representation. Interoception raises a different clinical question: how the nervous system senses and represents conditions inside the body. Both subjects illustrate why subjective experience and measured function must be distinguished.

Khalsa and colleagues (2018) described interoception as involving several related processes, including the sensing, interpretation and awareness of internal bodily information. [1]

A 2026 study by Stoffel and colleagues compared 44 people with FND with 48 healthy controls. The researchers found differences between participants with FND and healthy controls in some self-reported measures and heartbeat-related brain responses. However, a heartbeat-counting task did not show a statistically significant difference between groups. [3]

Why does that matter? These measurements are not interchangeable. What someone experiences, how they perform on a particular sensory task and what researchers record from the brain may tell different parts of the story. The group findings help frame clinical questions; interpreting an individual’s symptoms still draws on their own history and assessment. A statistically inconclusive task comparison also leaves open whether a meaningful difference exists.

Consider a patient who reports that their heart is racing. The sensation is real as an experience, but it does not establish whether the heart rate is elevated or explain why the person feels it. These are separate clinical questions, informed by physiological measurements, history and other findings. FND can coexist with arrhythmia, orthostatic disorders, medication effects or other medical conditions.

The study is useful because it reinforces the importance of keeping those questions distinct. It does not provide an FND diagnostic test or demonstrate that interoceptive retraining would benefit a particular patient. Clinicians interested in the EEG methods, statistical findings and study limitations can explore the original paper.

Why might different professionals contribute?

Maya’s principal difficulty concerns using her hand during familiar activities. Occupational therapy offers a relevant perspective because it examines the relationship between sensation, movement, the demands of an activity and participation in daily life. If a substantial motor-control problem is also identified, physiotherapy may contribute a different understanding of movement and rehabilitation.

Neither professional perspective is automatically sufficient for every sensory presentation. For example, visual loss raises questions that may involve ophthalmological or neurological expertise. Dizziness can involve vestibular, migraine, cardiovascular or other explanations; persistent postural-perceptual dizziness has specific diagnostic criteria rather than being interchangeable with FND or dizziness generally. [6]

An altered swallowing sensation presents another distinction. Subjective discomfort, swallowing function and airway safety are different clinical questions. Speech-language therapy expertise may be relevant, while medical assessment remains essential when structural, neurological, nutritional or aspiration concerns are present. [4]

These examples illustrate why collaboration is most useful when it answers a specific clinical question. The relevant handoff connects the patient’s experience and functional goal with findings that another professional can help interpret or address.

For more detailed assessment and rehabilitation information, the Reference Library includes functional sensory symptoms, sensory recovery approaches, sensation with meaningful movement and visual or mirror feedback.

What should clinicians take from this lesson?

Sensory experiences arise from interacting sources of information. Understanding exteroception, proprioception and interoception helps distinguish what a person feels, what an examination or measurement establishes and what remains unexplained.

In Maya’s case, that distinction creates an opportunity to understand why an ordinary hand activity has become difficult and how sensory information might support more comfortable participation. The interoception research illustrates the same broader principle from another perspective: subjective experiences, task performance and physiological measurements can provide different, complementary information.

Together, these ideas improve the questions clinicians can ask and the reasoning behind individualized rehabilitation.

Clinical takeaway: Sensory experience, measured function and underlying cause are different clinical questions. Understanding their relationship can reveal useful rehabilitation opportunities while preserving appropriate medical assessment and meaningful everyday outcomes.

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For the Person With FND
For Family, Friends, and Other Supporters
For Clinicians and the Care Team
Research and Sources

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Research and Sources

Reviews of interoception and proprioception provide the background. An FND study compares self-report, heartbeat-task performance and brain responses, while clinical reviews and consensus guidance inform assessment and rehabilitation. The community account describes sensations across coexisting conditions.

Citation	Figure	Full citation
[1]	—	Khalsa SS, Adolphs R, Cameron OG, et al. Interoception and mental health: a roadmap. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2018;3:501–513. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.12.004. Original · PubMed. FND-CIT-0301.
[2]	—	Proske U, Gandevia SC. The proprioceptive senses: their roles in signaling body shape, body position and movement, and muscle force. Physiol Rev. 2012;92:1651–1697. doi:10.1152/physrev.00048.2011. PubMed. FND-CIT-0302.
[3]	—	Stoffel N, Mouthon M, Yang H, et al. Attenuated heartbeat-evoked potentials in functional neurological disorder. Brain Commun. 2026;8:fcaf503. doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcaf503. Original · PubMed · PMC. FND-CIT-0303.
[4]	—	Baker J, Barnett C, Cavalli L, et al. Management of functional communication, swallowing, cough and related disorders: consensus recommendations for speech and language therapy. JNNP. 2021;92:1112–1125. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2021-326767. Original · PubMed. FND-CIT-0025.
[5]	—	Bennett K, Diamond C, Hoeritzauer I, et al. A practical review of functional neurological disorder (FND) for the general physician. Clin Med. 2021;21:28–36. doi:10.7861/clinmed.2020-0987. Original · PubMed. FND-CIT-0001.
[6]	—	Staab JP, Eckhardt-Henn A, Horii A, Jacob R, Strupp M, Brandt T, Bronstein A. Diagnostic criteria for persistent postural-perceptual dizziness (PPPD): consensus document of the Committee for the Classification of Vestibular Disorders of the Bárány Society. Journal of Vestibular Research. 2017;27(4):191–208. https://doi.org/10.3233/VES-170622 FND-CIT-0027.
[7]	—	Nicholson C, Edwards MJ, Carson AJ, et al. Occupational therapy consensus recommendations for functional neurological disorder. JNNP. 2020;91:1037–1045. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2019-322281. Original · PubMed. FND-CIT-0011.
[8]	Figure 1	Public Reddit contribution, r/FND. Original. Sensory description from a person reporting FND and coexisting conditions. Wording and surrounding context checked November 3, 2026. Individual lived experience; the sensations are not all attributed to FND. FND-CIT-0323.